经济代写|宏观经济学代写Macroeconomics代考|Stability Analysis and Early Keynesian

Doug I. Jones

Doug I. Jones

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宏观经济学,对国家或地区经济整体行为的研究。它关注的是了解整个经济的事件,如商品和服务的生产总量、失业水平和价格的一般行为。

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我们提供的宏观经济学Macroeconomics及其相关学科的代写,服务范围广, 其中包括但不限于:

  • Statistical Inference 统计推断
  • Statistical Computing 统计计算
  • Advanced Probability Theory 高等概率论
  • Advanced Mathematical Statistics 高等数理统计学
  • (Generalized) Linear Models 广义线性模型
  • Statistical Machine Learning 统计机器学习
  • Longitudinal Data Analysis 纵向数据分析
  • Foundations of Data Science 数据科学基础

经济代写|宏观经济学代写Macroeconomics代考|In Search of a Determinate Mathematical Model

Keynes’s early works and especially his Treatise on Money were well known by the econometricians. Frisch referred to it in his Cassel Festschrift essay where he argued that Keynes, as Marx, Fisher and Aftalion, could serve in investigating new economic mechanisms likely to be embedded into a mathematical system. Similarly, Tinbergen referred to Keynes in his (1935) Econometrica survey on quantitative business cycle models. Like Hayek, he was put in the category of literary theories whose weaknesses were to be devoid of a precise and complete treatment of all the possible causal relationships at work.

The organization of the Oxford meeting of the Econometric Society was the occasion to connect the work of the econometricians done during the previous years with the important development of the theory of income determination in England. The econometricians agreed to let three English economists connected with various degrees of proximity with Keynes present the ideas contained in the General Theory. ${ }^4$ Marschak first intended to ask Richard Kahn, Keynes’s secretary and a central member of the Circus (the reading circle which read the proofs of the General Theory), to give an exposition of Keynes’s system, however it was Meade, another member of the Circus, who stepped up as a representative of the inner circle. Harrod gave the perspective from outside the immediate circle, while Hicks through his “IS-LL” model gave the opinion of an outside challenger much less involved in the gestation of Keynes’s ideas.

Meade’s model shared several assumptions with Hicks’s model. ${ }^5$ He described a closed economy with no foreign exchanges where competition is perfect and “every price is equal to the marginal cost of production.” It involved two “industries,” for consumption goods and investment goods. The short-period elasticities of supply of firms in both industries are identical, and in each industry the wage is the only prime cost, raw material and depreciation costs being assumed to be negligible. Total expenditure on consumption goods and on newly constructed capital goods is equal to the national income, which is distributed between wage-earners and the owners of fixed capital equipment. Finally, the flow of new capital goods is assumed to be negligible relative to the existing stock so that net investment had no effect on the capital stock. Meade further assumed that “(a) producers have time to adjust their output until the marginal prime cost is equal to the price of the product, and to adjust the rate at which they expand their capital equipment until the rate of interest is equal to the marginal efficiency of capital, and (b) all individuals have time to adjust appropriately their expenditure and their savings in consequence of any change in their incomes” (Meade, 1937b: 98). ${ }^6$ But he did not base on time lags or time derivatives the dynamic process by which the adjustment happened between marginal cost and marginal revenue (equal to the market price because competition is perfect). This meant that the precise mechanism of adjustment remained unknown. Meade argued in a footnote that the elimination of one of these hypotheses, especially letting the capital stock vary, would “involve far-reaching changes in method” (Meade, 1937b: 98). One can add that these changes would make his model much more similar to the macro-dynamic models developed by the econometricians, which may explain why he added this note. ${ }^7$

经济代写|宏观经济学代写Macroeconomics代考|The Econometricians’ Critique of Meade’s Model

Tinbergen had the opportunity to read Meade’s paper a couple of weeks before the conference (Young, 1987: 33). In a letter dated September 16th, 1936, Tinbergen informed Meade that he had greatly appreciated his paper but had found his analysis of stability questionable:
As far as I can see, your statement on the stability of the system is open to doubt. In general I deny that it is possible to determine whether a system is stable or not with the help of merely static equations. In order to solve that equation one would have to know all the lags that have to be inserted into the system in order to make it dynamic. As a matter of fact, it seems possible to make out of the same system of static equations different dynamic systems of which the one shows a stable and the other an unstable equilibrium at the same point. (Tinbergen to Meade, September 18th, 1936, quoted in Young [1987:36]). ${ }^{14}$
This can easily be illustrated, Tinbergen went on, with reference to a simple market diagram representing a negatively inclined demand curve and a positively inclined supply curve.
If the lag of demand behind price is zero and that of supply behind price is a finite period, then this market will be in stable equilibrium when the slope of the demand curve is greater than that of supply curve. If however supply adapts itself immediately to price and demand shows a finite lag then stability of equilibrium is only present when the slope of the demand curve is less than that of the supply curve. (Tinbergen to Meade, September 18th, 1936, quoted in Young [1987: 46]).
During the conference, Frisch generalized Tinbergen’s argument by pointing out the importance of clarifying dynamic assumptions: “the stability of an equilibrium [cannot] be examined without bringing in dynamic consideration” (Brown, 1937: 362). In his recollection of the conference, Meade remembered having “a terrific argument” with Frisch on that subject in front of an amused Hicks. With the intention to clarify his conception of stability, Meade suggested illustrating the dynamics of an economic scheme with the example of a ball rolling inside a saucer.

宏观经济学代考

经济代写|宏观经济学代写Macroeconomics代考|In Search of a Determinate Mathematical Model

凯恩斯的早期著作,尤其是他的《货币论》为计量经济学家所熟知。Frisch 在他的 Cassel Festschrift 文章中提到了这一点,他认为凯恩斯与马克思、费舍尔和 Aftalion 一样,可以用于研究可能嵌入到数学系统中的新经济机制。同样,Tinbergen 在其(1935 年)关于定量商业周期模型的 Econometrica 调查中提到了凯恩斯。像哈耶克一样,他被归入文学理论的范畴,其弱点是缺乏对所有可能的因果关系的精确和完整的处理。

计量经济学会牛津会议的组织是将过去几年计量经济学家的工作与英国收入决定理论的重要发展联系起来的机会。计量经济学家同意让三位与凯恩斯关系密切的英国经济学家介绍《通论》中包含的思想。4Marschak 最初打算请凯恩斯的秘书兼 Circus(阅读通论证明的阅读圈)的核心成员 Richard Kahn 对凯恩斯的体系进行阐述,然而是 Circus 的另一名成员米德,谁挺身而出成为核心圈子的代表。哈罗德从直接圈子之外给出了观点,而希克斯通过他的“IS-LL”模型给出了一个外部挑战者的观点,而这个挑战者很少参与凯恩斯思想的酝酿。

米德的模型与希克斯的模型共享几个假设。5他描述了一个没有外汇的封闭经济,其中竞争是完美的,“每个价格都等于生产的边际成本”。它涉及消费品和投资品的两个“行业”。两个行业企业的短期供给弹性是相同的,在每个行业中,工资是唯一的主要成本,原材料和折旧成本被假定为可以忽略不计。消费品和新建资本品的总支出等于国民收入,在工资收入者和固定资本设备所有者之间分配。最后,假设新资本货物的流量相对于现有存量可以忽略不计,因此净投资对资本存量没有影响。6但他没有基于时间滞后或时间导数来调整边际成本和边际收益(等于市场价格,因为完全竞争)之间发生调整的动态过程。这意味着准确的调整机制仍然未知。米德在脚注中指出,消除其中一个假设,尤其是让资本存量发生变化,将“涉及方法上的深远变化”(米德,1937b:98)。可以补充说,这些变化将使他的模型更类似于计量经济学家开发的宏观动态模型,这可以解释他添加此注释的原因。7

经济代写|宏观经济学代写Macroeconomics代考|The Econometricians’ Critique of Meade’s Model

在会议召开前几周,丁伯根有机会阅读了米德的论文(Young,1987:33)。在一封日期为 1936 年 9 月 16 日的信中,丁伯根告诉米德,他非常欣赏他的论文,但发现他对稳定性的分析值得怀疑:
据我所知,您关于系统稳定性的说法值得怀疑。总的来说,我否认仅仅借助静态方程就可以确定一个系统是否稳定。为了解决这个方程,人们必须知道必须插入系统以使其动态的所有滞后。事实上,似乎有可能从同一个静态方程组中分离出不同的动态系统,其中一个系统在同一点显示出稳定的平衡,而另一个显示出不稳定的平衡。(Tinbergen to Meade,1936 年 9 月 18 日,引自 Young [1987:36])。14
这很容易说明,Tinbergen 继续说,参考一个简单的市场图,表示需求曲线负向倾斜和供应曲线正向倾斜。
如果需求滞后于价格的滞后为零,供给滞后于价格的滞后时间为有限期,则当需求曲线的斜率大于供给曲线的斜率时,该市场将处于稳定均衡。然而,如果供给立即适应价格而需求显示出有限的滞后,那么均衡的稳定性只有在需求曲线的斜率小于供给曲线的斜率时才会出现。(Tinbergen to Meade,1936 年 9 月 18 日,引自 Young [1987: 46])。
在会议期间,Frisch 通过指出澄清动态假设的重要性概括了 Tinbergen 的论点:“如果不引入动态考虑,[不能] 检验均衡的稳定性”(Brown,1937:362)。在他对会议的回忆中,米德记得在被逗乐的希克斯面前就这个问题与弗里施进行了“激烈的争论”。为了阐明他的稳定性概念,米德建议用球在碟子内滚动的例子来说明经济计划的动态。

统计代写请认准statistics-lab™. statistics-lab™为您的留学生涯保驾护航。

金融工程代写

金融工程是使用数学技术来解决金融问题。金融工程使用计算机科学、统计学、经济学和应用数学领域的工具和知识来解决当前的金融问题,以及设计新的和创新的金融产品。

非参数统计代写

非参数统计指的是一种统计方法,其中不假设数据来自于由少数参数决定的规定模型;这种模型的例子包括正态分布模型和线性回归模型。

广义线性模型代考

广义线性模型(GLM)归属统计学领域,是一种应用灵活的线性回归模型。该模型允许因变量的偏差分布有除了正态分布之外的其它分布。

术语 广义线性模型(GLM)通常是指给定连续和/或分类预测因素的连续响应变量的常规线性回归模型。它包括多元线性回归,以及方差分析和方差分析(仅含固定效应)。

有限元方法代写

有限元方法(FEM)是一种流行的方法,用于数值解决工程和数学建模中出现的微分方程。典型的问题领域包括结构分析、传热、流体流动、质量运输和电磁势等传统领域。

有限元是一种通用的数值方法,用于解决两个或三个空间变量的偏微分方程(即一些边界值问题)。为了解决一个问题,有限元将一个大系统细分为更小、更简单的部分,称为有限元。这是通过在空间维度上的特定空间离散化来实现的,它是通过构建对象的网格来实现的:用于求解的数值域,它有有限数量的点。边界值问题的有限元方法表述最终导致一个代数方程组。该方法在域上对未知函数进行逼近。[1] 然后将模拟这些有限元的简单方程组合成一个更大的方程系统,以模拟整个问题。然后,有限元通过变化微积分使相关的误差函数最小化来逼近一个解决方案。

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随机分析代写


随机微积分是数学的一个分支,对随机过程进行操作。它允许为随机过程的积分定义一个关于随机过程的一致的积分理论。这个领域是由日本数学家伊藤清在第二次世界大战期间创建并开始的。

时间序列分析代写

随机过程,是依赖于参数的一组随机变量的全体,参数通常是时间。 随机变量是随机现象的数量表现,其时间序列是一组按照时间发生先后顺序进行排列的数据点序列。通常一组时间序列的时间间隔为一恒定值(如1秒,5分钟,12小时,7天,1年),因此时间序列可以作为离散时间数据进行分析处理。研究时间序列数据的意义在于现实中,往往需要研究某个事物其随时间发展变化的规律。这就需要通过研究该事物过去发展的历史记录,以得到其自身发展的规律。

回归分析代写

多元回归分析渐进(Multiple Regression Analysis Asymptotics)属于计量经济学领域,主要是一种数学上的统计分析方法,可以分析复杂情况下各影响因素的数学关系,在自然科学、社会和经济学等多个领域内应用广泛。

MATLAB代写

MATLAB 是一种用于技术计算的高性能语言。它将计算、可视化和编程集成在一个易于使用的环境中,其中问题和解决方案以熟悉的数学符号表示。典型用途包括:数学和计算算法开发建模、仿真和原型制作数据分析、探索和可视化科学和工程图形应用程序开发,包括图形用户界面构建MATLAB 是一个交互式系统,其基本数据元素是一个不需要维度的数组。这使您可以解决许多技术计算问题,尤其是那些具有矩阵和向量公式的问题,而只需用 C 或 Fortran 等标量非交互式语言编写程序所需的时间的一小部分。MATLAB 名称代表矩阵实验室。MATLAB 最初的编写目的是提供对由 LINPACK 和 EISPACK 项目开发的矩阵软件的轻松访问,这两个项目共同代表了矩阵计算软件的最新技术。MATLAB 经过多年的发展,得到了许多用户的投入。在大学环境中,它是数学、工程和科学入门和高级课程的标准教学工具。在工业领域,MATLAB 是高效研究、开发和分析的首选工具。MATLAB 具有一系列称为工具箱的特定于应用程序的解决方案。对于大多数 MATLAB 用户来说非常重要,工具箱允许您学习应用专业技术。工具箱是 MATLAB 函数(M 文件)的综合集合,可扩展 MATLAB 环境以解决特定类别的问题。可用工具箱的领域包括信号处理、控制系统、神经网络、模糊逻辑、小波、仿真等。

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