## 机器学习代写|流形学习代写manifold data learning代考|ICML 2022

2022年7月20日

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## 机器学习代写|流形学习代写manifold data learning代考|Density Preserving Maps

Much of the recent work in manifold learning and nonlinear dimensionality reduction focuses on distance-based methods, i.e., methods that aim to preserve the local or global (geodesic) distances between data points on a submanifold of Euclidean space. While this is a promising approach when the data manifold is known to have no intrinsic curvature (which is the case for common examples such as the “Swiss roll”), classical results in Riemannian geometry show that it is impossible to map a $d$-dimensional data manifold with intrinsic curvature into $\mathbb{R}^{d}$ in a manner that preserves distances. Consequently, distance-based methods of dimensionality reduction distort intrinsically curved data spaces, and they often do so in unpredictable ways. In this chapter, we discuss an alternative paradigm of manifold learning. We show that it is possible to perform nonlinear dimensionality reduction by preserving the underlying density of the data, for a much larger class of data manifolds than intrinsically flat ones, and demonstrate a proof-of-concept algorithm demonstrating the promise of this approach.

Visual inspection of data after dimensional reduction to two or three dimensions is among the most common uses of manifold learning and nonlinear dimensionality reduction. Typically, what is sought by the user’s eye in two or three-dimensional plots is clustering and other relationships in the data. Knowledge of the density, in principle, allows one to identify such basic structures as clusters and outliers, and even define nonparametric classifiers; the underlying density of a data set is arguably one of the most fundamental statistical objects that describe it. Thus, a method of dimensionality reduction that is guaranteed to preserve densities may well be preferable to methods that aim to preserve distances, but end up distorting them in uncontrolled ways.

Many of the manifold learning methods require the user to set a neighborhood radius $h$, or, for $k$-nearest neighbor approaches, a positive integer $k$, to be used in determining the neighborhood graph. Most of the time, there is no automatic way to pick the appropriate values of the tweak parameters $h$ and $k$, and one resorts to trial and error, looking for values that result in reasonable-looking plots. Kernel density estimation, one of the most popular and useful methods of estimating the underlying density of a data set, comes with a natural way to choose $h$ or $k$; it suggests to us to pick the value that maximizes a cross-validation score for the density estimate. While the usual kernel density estimation does not allow one to estimate the density of data on submanifolds of Euclidean space, a small modification allows one to do so. This modification and its ramifications are discussed below in the context of density-preserving maps.

## 机器学习代写|流形学习代写manifold data learning代考|Dimensional Reduction to R

These results were formulated in terms of so-called closed manifolds, i.e., compact manifolds without boundary. The practical dimensionality reduction problem we would like to address, on the other hand, involves starting with a $d$-dimensional data submanifold $M$ of $\mathbb{R}^{D}$ (where $d<D$ ), and dimensionally reducing to $\mathbb{R}^{d}$. In order to be able to do this diffeomorphically, $M$ must be diffeomorphic to a subspace of $\mathbb{R}^{d}$, which is not generally the case for closed manifolds. For instance, although we can find a diffeomorphism from a hemisphere (a manifold with boundary, not a closed manifold) into the plane, we cannot find one from the unit sphere (a closed manifold) into the plane. This is a constraint on all dimensional reduction algorithms that preserve the global topology of the data space, not just density preserving maps. Any algorithm that aims to avoid “tearing” or “folding” the data subspace during the reduction will fail on problems like reducing a sphere to $\mathbb{R}^{2} .5$

Thus, in order to show that density preserving maps into $\mathbb{R}^{d}$ exist for a useful class of $d$-dimensional data manifolds, we have to make sure that the conclusion of Moser’s theorem and our corollary work for certain manifolds with boundary, or for certain non-compact manifolds, as well. Fortunately, this is not so hard, at least for a simple class of manifolds that is enough to be useful. In proving his theorem for closed manifolds, Moser [18] first gives a proof for a single “coordinate patch” in such a manifold, which, basically, defines a compact manifold with boundary minus the boundary itself. Not all $d$-dimensional manifolds with boundary (minus their boundaries) can be given by atlases consisting of a single coordinate patch, but the ones that can be so given cover a wide range of curved Riemannian manifolds, including the hemisphere and the Swiss roll, possibly with punctures. In the following, we will assume that $M$ consists of a single coordinate patch.

# 流形学习代写

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## MATLAB代写

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