如果你也在 怎样代写宏观经济学Macroeconomics 这个学科遇到相关的难题,请随时右上角联系我们的24/7代写客服。宏观经济学Macroeconomics对国家或地区经济整体行为的研究。它关注的是对整个经济事件的理解,如商品和服务的生产总量、失业水平和价格的一般行为。宏观经济学关注的是经济体的表现–经济产出、通货膨胀、利率和外汇兑换率以及国际收支的变化。减贫、社会公平和可持续增长只有在健全的货币和财政政策下才能实现。
宏观经济学Macroeconomics(来自希腊语前缀makro-,意思是 “大 “+经济学)是经济学的一个分支,处理整个经济体的表现、结构、行为和决策。例如,使用利率、税收和政府支出来调节经济的增长和稳定。这包括区域、国家和全球经济。根据经济学家Emi Nakamura和Jón Steinsson在2018年的评估,经济 “关于不同宏观经济政策的后果的证据仍然非常不完善,并受到严重批评。宏观经济学家研究的主题包括GDP(国内生产总值)、失业(包括失业率)、国民收入、价格指数、产出、消费、通货膨胀、储蓄、投资、能源、国际贸易和国际金融。
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经济代写|宏观经济学代写Macroeconomics代考|Producer Surplus
As we have just seen, the difference between what a consumer would be willing and able to pay for a given quantity of a good and what a consumer actually has to pay is called consumer surplus. The parallel concept for producers is called producer surplus. Producer surplus is the difference between what a producer is paid for a good and the cost of producing one unit of that good. Producers would never knowingly sell a good that is worth more to them than the asking price. Imagine selling coffee for half of what it cost to produce-you won’t be in business very long with that pricing strategy. The supply curve shows the minimum amount that sellers must receive to be willing to supply any given quantity; that is, the supply curve reflects the marginal cost to sellers. The marginal cost is the cost of producing one more unit of a good. In other words, the supply curve is the marginal cost curve, just like the demand curve is the marginal benefit curve. Because some units can be produced at a cost that is lower than the market price, the seller receives a surplus, or a net benefit, from producing those units. For each unit produced, the producer surplus is the difference between the market price and the marginal cost of producing that unit. For example, in Exhibit 4, the market price is $\$ 4.50$. Say the firm’s marginal cost is $\$ 2$ for the first unit, $\$ 3$ for the second unit, $\$ 4$ for the third unit, and $\$ 5$ for the fourth unit. Because producer surplus for a particular unit is the difference between the market price and the seller’s cost of producing that unit, producer surplus would be as follows: The first unit would yield $\$ 2.50$, the second unit would yield $\$ 1.50$, the third unit would yield $\$ .50$, and the fourth unit would add nothing to producer surplus because the market price is less than the seller’s cost.
When there are a lot of producers, the supply curve is more or less smooth, like in Exhibit 5 . Total producer surplus for the market is obtained by summing all the producer surpluses of all the sellers-the area above the market supply curve and below the market price up to the quantity actually produced-the shaded area in Exhibit 5. Producer surplus is a measurement of how much sellers gain from trading in the market. Producer surplus represents the benefits that lower costs producers receive by selling at the market price.
Suppose the market price of wheat rises, from $P_1$ to $P_2$; wheat farmers now receive a higher price per unit, so additional producer surplus is generated, area $P_2 C B P_1$. In Exhibit 6, we see the additions to producer surplus. Part of the added surplus (area $P_2 \mathrm{DB} P_1$ ) is due to a higher price for the quantity already being produced (up to $Q_1$ ) and part (area DCB) is due to the expansion of output made profitable by the higher price (from $Q_1$ to $Q_2$ ). That is, there are gains to farmers who would have supplied the wheat at the original price, $P_1$, and gains to the producers of added output who are drawn into the market at the higher market price, $P_2$. Similarly, a fall in the price of wheat from $P_2$ to $P_1$ would lead to a reduction in producer surplus of area $P_2 C B P_1$.
Just as consumer surplus measures the net gains in economic well-being received by buyers, producer surplus measures the net gains in economic well-being received by sellers. In the next section we see that maximizing total surplus (both consumer and producer surplus) will lead to an efficient allocation of resources.
经济代写|宏观经济学代写Macroeconomics代考|Market Efficiency and Producer and Consumer Surplus
With the tools of consumer and producer surplus, we can better analyze the total gains from exchange. The demand curve represents a collection of maximum prices that consumers are willing and able to pay for additional quantities of a good or service. It also shows the marginal benefits derived by consumers. That is, the demand curve represents the benefits that buyers receive from each marginal unit of the good consumed. The supply curve represents a collection of minimum prices that suppliers require to be willing and able to supply each additional unit of a good or service. It also shows the marginal cost of production. It represents the costs that sellers must bear to produce each marginal unit for the market. Both are shown in Exhibit 7. For example, for the first unit of output, the buyer is willing to pay up to $\$ 7$, while the seller would have to receive at least $\$ 1$ to produce that unit. However, the equilibrium price is $\$ 4$, as indicated by the intersection of the supply and demand curves. It is clear that the two would gain from getting together and trading that unit because the consumer would receive $\$ 3$ of consumer surplus $(\$ 7-\$ 4)$, and the producer would receive $\$ 3$ of producer surplus $(\$ 4-\$ 1)$. Both would also benefit from trading the second and third units of output-in fact, both would benefit from trading every unit up to the market equilibrium output. That is, the buyer purchases the good, except for the very last unit, for less than the maximum amount she would have been willing to pay; the seller receives for the good, except for the last unit, more than the minimum amount for which he would have been willing to supply the good. Once the equilibrium output is reached at the equilibrium price, all the mutually beneficial trade opportunities between the demander and supplier will have taken place, and the sum of consumer surplus and producer surplus is maximized. This is where the marginal benefit to buyers is equal to the marginal cost to producers. Both buyer and seller are better off from each of the units traded than they would have been if they had not exchanged them.
宏观经济学代考
经济代写|宏观经济学代写Macroeconomics代考|Producer Surplus
正如我们刚才所看到的,消费者愿意并能够为一定数量的商品支付的价格与消费者实际必须支付的价格之间的差额称为消费者剩余。生产者的平行概念被称为生产者剩余。生产者剩余是指生产者获得一种商品的报酬与生产一单位该商品的成本之间的差额。生产商永远不会故意出售对他们来说价值高于要价的商品。想象一下,以生产成本的一半出售咖啡——你不会在这种定价策略下经营太久。供给曲线显示了卖家愿意提供任何给定数量的最小数量;也就是说,供给曲线反映了卖方的边际成本。边际成本是多生产一单位商品的成本。换句话说,供给曲线是边际成本曲线,就像需求曲线是边际效益曲线一样。因为某些单位的生产成本低于市场价格,所以卖方从生产这些单位中获得盈余或净收益。对于生产的每一单位,生产者剩余是市场价格和生产该单位的边际成本之差。例如,在图表4中,市场价格为$ $ 4.50$。假设公司的边际成本是第一件2美元,第二件3美元,第三件4美元,第四件5美元。由于某一特定单位的生产者剩余是市场价格与卖方生产该单位的成本之差,因此生产者剩余将如下所示:第一单位的收益为$ 2.50$,第二单位的收益为$ 1.50$,第三单位的收益为$ 0.50 $,第四单位的生产者剩余不会增加,因为市场价格低于卖方的成本。
当有很多生产者时,供给曲线或多或少是平滑的,如图5所示。市场的生产者总剩余是通过将所有卖方的生产者剩余加起来得到的,即市场供给曲线上方和市场价格下方的区域,直到实际生产的数量,即图5中的阴影区域。生产者剩余是衡量卖方从市场交易中获得多少收益的指标。生产者剩余是指低成本生产者以市场价格销售产品所获得的利益。
假设小麦的市场价格从$P_1$上升到$P_2$;小麦农民现在得到了更高的单价,因此产生了额外的生产者剩余,面积$P_2 C B P_1$。在表6中,我们看到生产者剩余的增加。新增盈余的一部分(面积$P_2 \ mathm {DB} P_1$)是由于已经生产的数量的价格上涨(高达$Q_1$),另一部分(面积DCB)是由于价格上涨(从$Q_1$到$Q_2$)而扩大的产出带来的利润。也就是说,以原价P_1美元供应小麦的农民获得了收益,而以更高的市场价格P_2美元进入市场的增加产量的生产者获得了收益。同样,小麦价格从$P_2$下降到$P_1$将导致面积$P_2 C B P_1$的生产者剩余减少。
正如消费者剩余衡量的是买方经济福利的净收益一样,生产者剩余衡量的是卖方经济福利的净收益。在下一节中,我们将看到最大化总剩余(消费者和生产者剩余)将导致资源的有效配置。
经济代写|宏观经济学代写Macroeconomics代考|Market Efficiency and Producer and Consumer Surplus
利用消费者剩余和生产者剩余的工具,我们可以更好地分析交换的总收益。需求曲线表示消费者愿意并能够为额外数量的商品或服务支付的最高价格的集合。它还显示了消费者获得的边际效益。也就是说,需求曲线表示购买者从每一边际单位消费的商品中获得的收益。供给曲线表示供给者愿意并能够提供每一单位额外的商品或服务所需的最低价格的集合。它还显示了生产的边际成本。它表示卖方为市场生产每一边际单位产品所必须承担的成本。两者都如表7所示。例如,对于第一单位的产出,买方愿意支付最多7美元,而卖方必须至少收到1美元才能生产该单位。然而,均衡价格是$ $ $ $,由供给曲线和需求曲线的交点表示。很明显,两者将从聚在一起并交易该单位中获益,因为消费者将获得3美元的消费者剩余(7美元- 4美元),生产者将获得3美元的生产者剩余(4美元- 1美元)。双方都将从第二和第三单位产出的交易中获益——事实上,双方都将从每单位产出的交易中获益。也就是说,买家购买商品,除了最后一个单位,低于她愿意支付的最高金额;卖方收到的货物,除了最后一个单位,超过了他愿意提供货物的最低金额。当均衡产量达到均衡价格时,需求者和供给者之间所有互利的贸易机会都发生了,消费者剩余和生产者剩余的总和达到最大值。在这里,购买者的边际收益等于生产者的边际成本。买卖双方从每一单位的交易中获得的收益都比他们没有交换时获得的收益要多。
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金融工程代写
金融工程是使用数学技术来解决金融问题。金融工程使用计算机科学、统计学、经济学和应用数学领域的工具和知识来解决当前的金融问题,以及设计新的和创新的金融产品。
非参数统计代写
非参数统计指的是一种统计方法,其中不假设数据来自于由少数参数决定的规定模型;这种模型的例子包括正态分布模型和线性回归模型。
广义线性模型代考
广义线性模型(GLM)归属统计学领域,是一种应用灵活的线性回归模型。该模型允许因变量的偏差分布有除了正态分布之外的其它分布。
术语 广义线性模型(GLM)通常是指给定连续和/或分类预测因素的连续响应变量的常规线性回归模型。它包括多元线性回归,以及方差分析和方差分析(仅含固定效应)。
有限元方法代写
有限元方法(FEM)是一种流行的方法,用于数值解决工程和数学建模中出现的微分方程。典型的问题领域包括结构分析、传热、流体流动、质量运输和电磁势等传统领域。
有限元是一种通用的数值方法,用于解决两个或三个空间变量的偏微分方程(即一些边界值问题)。为了解决一个问题,有限元将一个大系统细分为更小、更简单的部分,称为有限元。这是通过在空间维度上的特定空间离散化来实现的,它是通过构建对象的网格来实现的:用于求解的数值域,它有有限数量的点。边界值问题的有限元方法表述最终导致一个代数方程组。该方法在域上对未知函数进行逼近。[1] 然后将模拟这些有限元的简单方程组合成一个更大的方程系统,以模拟整个问题。然后,有限元通过变化微积分使相关的误差函数最小化来逼近一个解决方案。
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随机分析代写
随机微积分是数学的一个分支,对随机过程进行操作。它允许为随机过程的积分定义一个关于随机过程的一致的积分理论。这个领域是由日本数学家伊藤清在第二次世界大战期间创建并开始的。
时间序列分析代写
随机过程,是依赖于参数的一组随机变量的全体,参数通常是时间。 随机变量是随机现象的数量表现,其时间序列是一组按照时间发生先后顺序进行排列的数据点序列。通常一组时间序列的时间间隔为一恒定值(如1秒,5分钟,12小时,7天,1年),因此时间序列可以作为离散时间数据进行分析处理。研究时间序列数据的意义在于现实中,往往需要研究某个事物其随时间发展变化的规律。这就需要通过研究该事物过去发展的历史记录,以得到其自身发展的规律。
回归分析代写
多元回归分析渐进(Multiple Regression Analysis Asymptotics)属于计量经济学领域,主要是一种数学上的统计分析方法,可以分析复杂情况下各影响因素的数学关系,在自然科学、社会和经济学等多个领域内应用广泛。
MATLAB代写
MATLAB 是一种用于技术计算的高性能语言。它将计算、可视化和编程集成在一个易于使用的环境中,其中问题和解决方案以熟悉的数学符号表示。典型用途包括:数学和计算算法开发建模、仿真和原型制作数据分析、探索和可视化科学和工程图形应用程序开发,包括图形用户界面构建MATLAB 是一个交互式系统,其基本数据元素是一个不需要维度的数组。这使您可以解决许多技术计算问题,尤其是那些具有矩阵和向量公式的问题,而只需用 C 或 Fortran 等标量非交互式语言编写程序所需的时间的一小部分。MATLAB 名称代表矩阵实验室。MATLAB 最初的编写目的是提供对由 LINPACK 和 EISPACK 项目开发的矩阵软件的轻松访问,这两个项目共同代表了矩阵计算软件的最新技术。MATLAB 经过多年的发展,得到了许多用户的投入。在大学环境中,它是数学、工程和科学入门和高级课程的标准教学工具。在工业领域,MATLAB 是高效研究、开发和分析的首选工具。MATLAB 具有一系列称为工具箱的特定于应用程序的解决方案。对于大多数 MATLAB 用户来说非常重要,工具箱允许您学习和应用专业技术。工具箱是 MATLAB 函数(M 文件)的综合集合,可扩展 MATLAB 环境以解决特定类别的问题。可用工具箱的领域包括信号处理、控制系统、神经网络、模糊逻辑、小波、仿真等。